EOTO 2 Reactions Blog

For my reaction blog post to our most recent EOTO, I want to write and do some extra research on the first Ku Klux Klan. I've learned about the second and third incarnations of the KKK in the past, but I haven't really learned of their origins.

When people think of the Ku Klux Klan, they most likely think of its second and third incarnations. White pointy hoods and cross-burnings are the most (for the lack of a better word) "iconic" symbols of the Klan. However, the first Klan had neither, and is the most differentiated out of the three incarnations of the Klan.

3 arrested Klan Members
in uniform in 1871

The original Ku Klux Klan was founded by Confederate veterans in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee. Obviously, the Klan's core beliefs were in white supremacy, the re-establishment of a whites-only government. However, they lacked the anti-Semitic, anti-immigrant, and anti-Catholic beliefs that would come with later incarnations of the Klan.

Of course, there are many similarities to later incarnations as well. The Klan quickly became deeply entrenched in anti-black in anti-Republican violence in the South. Assaults, murders, arson, lynchings, and voter intimidation were a large part of the Klan's activities.

Another commonality with the second incarnation of the KKK was that the first Klan was very disorganized. Though Nathan Bedford Forrest was elected as the Grand Wizard of the first official leader of the KKK, almost all chapters operated entirely independently.

For the first few years of the Ku Klux Klan, they enjoyed success. The Klan succeeded at suppressing votes for republicans and black leaders in multiple counties during the election of 1869, even though Ulysses S. Grant, a Republican, would win anyway. However, the Grand Wizard Forrest became disenchanted with Klan.

Nathan Bedford Forrest

In an interview, Forrest called the clan a "protective political military organization" for the Democratic party. However, in 1869, Forrest called for the Klan to disband as he felt that it had strayed from this purpose, upsetting the peace and safety of the public rather than protecting it. Due to the Klan's independent nature, it would continue to operate against Forrest's wishes until the Ku Klux Klan Act was passed in 1871, which made it difficult for Klan members to operate without criminal punishments.

Reconstruction Video Post

The Dawn of the Reconstruction era was a time of massive progress for African Americans. Freed from slavery, many felt that a new age was right around the corner. This enthusiasm made perfect sense; in the early 1870s, it looked like the goal of liberty for African Americans had been almost entirely reached.

Hiram Revels, a Mississippi
Senator, was the first black
member of Congress.

For starters, many African Americans had become members of state legislatures. Less than a decade prior, the idea of a state legislature having African American members was ludicrous. South Carolina even had a black majority in its House of Representatives. On top of this, there were 14 African American members of Congress. Less than a decade after freedom and enfranchisement, this much was achieved at the government level.

Things had drastically improved outside of legislatures as well. Many former slaves and their children were able to get an education at public schools. Thanks to citizenship, black businesses began to grow as well. Both blacks and whites began to operate farms, blacksmith shops, and other essential businesses. There were even black sheriffs and judges.

Still, things were far from perfect. Many African Americans were subject to attacks from white supremacists. The most infamous white supremacist group, The Ku-Klux-Klan wreaked havoc, not only attacking African Americans who were rising in power, but even whites who supported them. Lynchings, arson, and threats from the KKK were a source of fear and anguish for many.

On top of that, Republican and Northern support for reconstruction in the South began to wane. Some republican congressmen started speaking against black involvement in the government, calling the predominately black government in South Carolina either incompetent, corrupt, or both. This gave way to Democrats taking back control in the South, and eventually, the repealing of important reconstruction acts that improved the lives of African Americans.

The Panic of 1873 also greatly damaged the progress of reconstruction. A massive economic crash turned much of the public opinion against Republicans, who held the majority of government control. The 1874 elections were dominated by Democrats, who promised not only to restore the economy, but to end reconstruction.

An illustration of Wall Street at the beginning of the
Panic of 1873

The Reconstruction era was, for a short time, an era of great hope and progress for the civil rights of African Americans. However, the reversal of this progress came quickly, and wouldn't take a turn for the better for decades. One can only wonder how times would be different today if progress had kept marching forward instead of being beaten backward so severely.

The Amistad Mutiny (EOTO 1)

In our last class activity, My group and I researched our own topics to teach to the class and then presented them. I taught a short summary of the events of the Amistad Mutiny. The Amistad Mutiny and the case that followed was one of the first wins for abolitionists in the Supreme Court (United States v. The Amistad). In this blog post, I will give a more detailed presentation of my research.

Sometime between 1838 and 1839, 53 Africans were kidnapped by slave traders somewhere near Sierra Leone or Liberia. They were then sold on the island of Lomboko by a Spanish slave trader and shipped to the Spanish colony of Cuba. At the Havana slave auction in June 1839, plantation owners Pedro Montes and José Ruiz purchased and ordered them to be shipped to their plantation on the other side of Cuba.

Joseph Cinqué

Four days after they set sail on June 28th, Joseph Cinqué (a captured African) lead the slaves to revolt and take over the ship, killing the captain and one crew member. Cinqué and the others ordered the remaining crew to sail back to Africa. During the day, the crew complied, but during the night, the crew sailed north towards the United States hoping to hit land.

On August 26th, the crew's hopes were answered; they were intercepted off the coast of Long Island by the U.S. government. The Spanish crew was set free, and slaves were imprisoned in New Haven, Connecticut to await their trial for murder and mutiny. President Martin Van Buren would've likely ordered for the slaves to be extradited to Cuba to stand trial, but they were charged in the U.S. before he could take action.

Hale Woodruff's rendition of the mutiny

Around this point, the events of the Amistad had become nationwide news. Abolitionists saw this as a chance to both help prevent slavery and present their views on a national platform, so they formed a committee to raise funds for the slaves' defense. Along with donations from abolitionists tourists paid 12 cents for glimpses of the slaves and could purchase memorabilia. Roger Baldwin, an attorney who would later become the governor of Connecticut, led the defense for the slaves.

The slaves' story of their kidnapping was crucial for the defense. The defense was able to find an African man who knew the slaves' language (Mende), along with a British seaman who also knew Mende. Since the slaves were kidnapped from Africa in 1838, they could not be considered slaves under Spanish law, as Spain had banned the importation of slaves to its colonies in 1817 in a treaty with the British government. This ban was entirely ignored by most Spanish colonies and the Spanish government anyway, but it was crucial in a court of law.

Hale Woodruff's rendition of the district court case

Using the argument that the Africans could not legally be slaves under Spanish law, the defense was able to win the district court case in Connecticut. However, the prosecution appealed to the circuit court, where the same conclusion was reached. The prosecution appealed once more. This time, they appealed to the Supreme Court, and the case was accepted. The abolitionists feared this, as the pro-slavery Democratic party held a majority in the court. So, they sook assistance from former President John Quincy Adams in the case.

To the surprise of many, the court overwhelmingly sided with the defense, 7 to 1. Even if the Justices supported the institution of slavery, there was no arguing that Spanish law forbade the importation of slaves into its colonies: regardless if it was enforced or not. Still, the abolitionists were forced to raise funds to return the Africans to their homes themselves, but the government would not cover the cost.

Margru, who was given the 
English name Sarah Kinson

35 of the Africans did eventually return home in 1841, but only a few stories of what happened after remain. The most complete one is of Margru, a young girl. She came to the U.S. to attend and graduate from Oberlin College and return to Africa as a missionary. Joseph Cinqué resurfaced in an African Christian mission in 1879 where he died and received a Christian burial. 

Gone with the Wind Reflection: Hattie McDaniel

Hattie McDaniel

While lauded by critics as one of the greatest films of all time, Gone with the Wind's racist depictions of African American stereotypes are as clear as glass. However, Hattie McDaniel was the first African American to win an Oscar for her performance as the stereotypical "mammy", even beating her white co-star Olivia de Havilland. Hattie McDaniel's story as both a pioneer for black actors and a source for Hollywood stereotypes is one of the most interesting in the film industry.

Hattie McDaniel was born to a family of 13 children in 1893; both of her parents were former slaves. She and her family were performers; her father performed traveling shows with her brothers, and Hattie performed locally with her siblings. Entertainment was a large part of her life, and McDaniel intended to keep it a part of her life.

After working singing gigs and becoming the first black woman to sing on U.S radio, McDaniel moved to Los Angeles where she acted in minor roles in movies. Eventually, McDaniel would score her famous role in Gone with the Wind. Becoming the first African American to win an Oscar was a major achievement for racial progress in Hollywood, but there were detractors.

McDaniel receiving her Oscar

Of course, there were negative reactions simply because McDaniel was black, but there was another reason. Many civil rights activists felt that McDaniel's role as a maid (a type of role that she played more than any other) perpetuated stereotypes of African Americans. They specifically felt that in Gone with the Wind, the role of Mammy helped paint an idealized view of slavery.

Walter White

The president of the NAACP, Walter White, actively worked within Hollywood to discourage producers from having black servant roles in their movies. While these servant roles were the source of McDaniel's critics, they were also her niche and income. A biographer wrote that McDaniel felt that White was trying to "grab the bread right out of her mouth". She also once said, "Hell, I'd rather play a maid than be one".

Once her opportunities in film dried up, McDaniel moved to a successful career in radio. She died in 1952 of breast cancer and was denied burial at the Hollywood Cemetery (one of her last wishes) due to it being whites-only. She was honored with a memorial in the cemetery in 1999. She was also posthumously inducted into the Black Filmmakers Hall of Fame.

Frederick Douglass Town Hall Activity

For our first speech activity, we had a fictional town hall meeting in which each student chose a historical figure to speak as. Each historical figure gave their takes on the issue of slavery, and whether they agreed or disagreed with the practice. I was John Brown, a puritan abolitionist who literally fought slavery in Bleeding Kansas. However, in this blog, I will instead discuss the pro-slavery figures that were at our town hall meeting. 

Dr. J Marion Sims

The first figure that interested me was Dr. J Marion Sims. Dr. Sims is known as "the father of gynecology", and was a pioneer in care for pregnant women (and women in general). He founded the first women's hospital in New York and was responsible for the opening of the nation's first hospital for cancer patients.

However, he had a dark side. Many of his techniques and discoveries were developed with the use of slaves as test subjects. While trying to figure out cures and surgeries for vaginal injuries, he experimented on enslaved women without anesthesia; at the time, it was commonly believed that black people felt less pain than white people.

Another interesting figure was Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson has been heavily discussed before, but I still found it interesting to hear someone speak as him anyway. Thomas Jefferson appears to have had a very complex view on slavery; he generally critiqued it, but he also owned over 600 slaves. Eventually, it appears he settled on the idea of gradual emancipation, but historians still debate over his true view.

I greatly enjoyed our "town hall meeting" as historical figures. It was interesting to hear differing perspectives from an era that was so different than the one we are in now. Watching people present through these different lenses provided a more contemporary view of how we interpret these figures.

John Brown Research

John Brown

For our historical figure town hall presentations, I chose to research and present as John Brown. John Brown was a Puritan evangelist who was (not to put it negatively) an extremist abolitionist. Out of all the abolitionists I've learned about/researched, John Brown has always been my favorite to his interesting and unique story.

John Brown was born in Torrington, Connecticut on May 9th, 1800 to Owen Brown and Ruth Mills. The Brown family moved multiple times during John's childhood, eventually settling in Hudson, Ohio. This region would eventually become one of the most anti-slavery regions in the country, with Hudson acting as a safe town for Underground Railroad fugitives. Hudson's founder, David Hudson was a fervent abolitionist along with Owen Brown and advocated for slave resistance. 

It is likely that Hudson, Ohio, and his father were John Brown's core influences in his fervent and forceful anti-slavery stance. These influences were solidified in an event that Brown witnessed when he was 12 years old. While delivering an errand to a man, he lodged with them for a night since it was a relatively long trip there. He was treated kindly, but he witnessed the man beat a young slave boy with an iron shovel. It was likely witnessing this is what drove Brown to lead a life of action against slavery, not just words.

For most of his adult life, Brown lived a relatively normal and successful life. He became a successful tanner and taught himself surveying. He moved to Pennsylvania with his family, establishing a large farm that also served as a stop on the Underground Railroad. It is estimated that helped over 2,500 slaves make it to Canada. However, the Panic of 1837 ruined Brown's finances, and it took until around 1850 for him to recover, having lost almost all of his property.

In 1854, a state-level civil war began in the Kansas Territory, referred to as Bleeding Kansas. Five of Brown's sons moved to Kansas as the war began, and Brown followed suit in 1855, bringing with him a wagon full of guns and ammunition. He settled in Osawatomie, and shortly after he became the leader of the anti-slavery forces in Kansas.

Artist's depiction of Bleeding Kansas

Multiple pro-slavery raids would occur in 1856, including the Sacking of Lawrence, which would drive Brown to carry out the first action that gave him national attention. On the night of May 24th, 1856, Brown led anti-slavery forces to kill 5 slave hunters and pro-slavery militants in Pottawatomie Creek: this would be called the Pottawatomie Massacre. In the following three months, Brown saw the most action in Kansas due to retaliatory attacks by pro-slavery forces. Brown's forces captured 22 men while defending an anti-slavery settlement, and they also killed 20 pro-slavery Missourians while retreating due to being overwhelmed by numbers. Shortly after, the fighting stopped due to intervention from the state's governor.

Brown's final act would be his raid on Harper's Ferry. Brown spent 3 years recruiting and raising funds for the raid, working with and meeting influential abolitionists along the way. He worked with Harriet Tubman to recruit men for the raid and tried to enlist Frederick Douglass for the raid. Douglass declined as he thought the raid would be a suicide attack, and he worked to dissuade black men from enlisting.

Though Brown originally planned to have a force of around 4,500 men, he would only end up having 21 recruits for the raid. Brown would end up leading only 18 men on the raid into Harper's Ferry. They met no resistance when capturing the armory, only encountering a single guard and no resistance from the surrounding town. However, things quickly went south as Robert E. Lee and other soon-to-be-famous generals arrived with 88 U.S. Marines.

Unsurprisingly, Brown and his men were overwhelmed and defeated. 5 of Brown's men escaped, 11 of Brown's men were killed before they were captured, and Brown and 6 others were captured tried, and sentenced to death. Initially, Brown was widely viewed as a madman for the raid, but after voluminous amounts of correspondence with the press and responding to letters written to him, he came to be viewed as a hero to Northerners with anti-slavery sentiments.

Painting of John Brown before
his execution

Brown knew that his actions and soon-to-be would have profound consequences on the country. He wrote, "[I am] fully persuaded that I am worth inconceivably more to hang than for any other purpose" (The Atlantic). He had been able to heavily publicize his views thanks to the press requesting interviews with him, and he knew his death would polarize the nation. His final words which he wrote to his jailor (and that I used to end my speech) proved to be prophetic. "I, John Brown, am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty land will never be purged away but with blood. I had, as I now think, vainly flattered myself that without very much bloodshed it might be done."

Sources/Further Reading
A Blurb about John Brown's Farm in Pennsylvania
An Interview with Charles S. S. Griffing about John Brown
An Interview with Ruth Thompson, Daughter of John Brown
A Timeline of John Brown's Life
A Visit to John Brown by a Lady (Interview)
Britannica Biography of John Brown
Memoirs of John Brown
Midnight rising: John Brown and the raid that sparked the Civil War
Territorial Kansas: John Brown
The Atlantic Monthly (1922) "John Brown"

Bible Research Challenge

The following blog post was a collaborative writing assignment between myself and Lauren Pujolar. Slight edits have been made to Pujolar's writing for clarity, but the style and content are untouched. The sections have been marked with their authors.

Written by Lauren Pujolar Slavery was a controversial issue that haunts the history of the world. It was not only an issue in society but also an issue in religion and in the Bible. As Professor Dean wrote on the page, “they based arguments both for and against slavery on religion usually on the Bible” (Smith). 

In Christianity, the argument about if slavery was right or wrong was a big debate, especially in America’s earlier years as a country. The Bible supports slavery and also looks down on it. The debate of what was right and what was wrong in the eyes of God was a big part of deciding whether slavery should be abolished or not in the US Constitution. And the opposite views based on the Bible caused division in early America and why the decision of abolishing slavery was delicate in the eyes of Christianity. 

Christianity is a religion that preaches loving your neighbors, forgiving your enemy, as well as forgiving those who have wronged you. From the outside looking in, a religion with these values would never support slavery. Slavery is considered a sin in Christianity based on the belief of treating people the way you wanted to be treated. 

The Bible follows these values by stating: “Whoever steals a man and sells him, and anyone found in possession of him, shall be put to death.” (Exodus 21:16) As a Christian, the only higher power is God and all men and women are created equal regardless of skin color. According to the Bible, “slaveholders cannot be Christian because slavery is a sin.” (Hosmer) In the beginning of the 16th century, many Popes declared slavery a sin and that made it against religion. 

A huge advocate for anti-slavery was Henry Ward Beecher, he claimed that “while the fundamental feature of the Roman system was that he was a chattel and not a man.” (American Historical Association) He and many other Christians believed that slavery was sinful, against the Bible, and unchristian because it put the well-being and selfish needs of some above others. 

It also put the slave owner above the slave which would make him closer to God/above someone else which wasn’t prohibited in the Bible. Slavery was against the Bible and that is why so many Christians were pushing for the Constitution to get rid of slavery based on the fact that it was sinful. 

Written by Parker Nyboer

While the idea of modern forms of Christianity condoning slavery is ludicrous, the denominations of the Christian religion have not always been anti-slavery. In fact, many Christian thinkers and leaders have been staunchly pro-slavery. While Christian views are obviously different today, there is no denying that Christianity once condoned slavery.

The slave trade in America brought about the need for theological justifications in the Christian world. If slaveholders were Christian, either they or someone else would have to confront the issue of slavery from a religious standpoint. Many theologians and church leaders did, and many reached a conclusion in support of slavery.

Bishop John Henry Hopkins

For example, John Henry Hopkins, who was an Episcopalian bishop, strongly believed in the idea of slavery and used the Bible to defend it. He stated that while the Bible did establish that blacks and whites had a common ancestor through Noah, they were not equal. In one of his pamphlets he wrote, “why should not the African race be subject, and subject in that way to which it is best adapted?” (Burrell 4)

Said biblical arguments usually stemmed from the story of the Curse of Ham, in which Noah condemns his grandson and son of Ham, Canaan, along with Canaan’s descendants to be “servants” to Ham’s other brothers. English Bishop Thomas Newton heavily used the “Hamitic Hypothesis” (Burrell 4.1) in his publication, Dissertation on the Prophecies, in defense of slavery.

As with all other religions’ beliefs, Christianity’s beliefs are fluid. While slavery was once accepted by a sizeable amount of Christians, the abolitionist movement was also heavily influenced by Christianity. There may be religious practices today that will end up mirroring this story in the coming years.

Source Slavery, the Hebrew Bible and the Development of Racial Theories in the Nineteenth Century by Kevin Burrell